The vision of mining space for resources is no longer science fiction. The moon's proximity to Earth and the presence of precious resources make it an increasingly attractive prospect for exploitation.
There are billions of dollars in it for companies able to kickstart mining operations, even if such returns are still years away. Technological breakthroughs in launch and exploration capabilities are occurring at breakneck pace. In the US, Seattle-based startup Interlune, working with Iowa industrial manufacturer Vermeer, is developing an electric lunar excavator designed to extract helium-3.
Their prototype can process up to 100 metric tons of lunar soil per hour. Interlune plans a 2027 mission to confirm helium-3 concentrations before deploying a pilot plant in 2029.
The Pittsburgh-based space company Astrobotic is developing the Griffin-1 lander to transport a rover designed by the California-based company Astrolab for surface analysis. A different lander called Nova-C, built by Intuitive Machines in Houston, is being designed to conduct analysis of lunar soil and rock under Nasa's Prism programme. Prism is a science and technology initiative designed to support various aspects of lunar exploration.
Meanwhile, Nasa's Polar Resources Ice Mining Experiment 1 (Prime-1), which was carried to the moon this year by an Intuitive Machines lander, demonstrated Honeybee Robotics' Trident drill on the lunar surface. Trident both drills and extracts samples of lunar soil.
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SpaceX's giant Starship rocket, which has a large payload capacity and reusable design, could send multiple large experiments to the moon, and cut launch costs by as much as US$250–US$600 (£188-£451) per kg. Assuming it overcomes its teething problems, Starship could be the game changer that makes large-scale lunar infrastructure and resource missions economically viable.
While US-led initiatives have been commonplace in lunar exploration, new political and corporate players are emerging globally. China aims to achieve human lunar landings by 2030, with plans for the robotic construction of lunar bases in partnership with Russia and other nations. This would establish an international Lunar Research Station by 2035.
An illustration of the electric lunar harvester, developed by Interlune, designed to mine minerals on the moon. (Image credit: Interlune)
Australia's 2026 rover will put its mining expertise to work extracting oxygen and collecting soil on the moon, while Japan's Slim mission focuses on precision landings that can target resource-rich areas. At the same time ispace, a Japanese company, is developing a mini rover to explore lunar resources.
In the EU, the Argonaut programme is developing the ESA (European Space Agency)'s first lunar lander, with the involvement of a growing body of industrial enterprises across Europe. These missions are critical for gathering data and capabilities needed to understand what’s actually available on the moon and how we might one day mine it.
Frozen treaties
Yet despite evolving technical capabilities, the international legal framework governing exploitation of the moon is both very limited and frozen in the Cold War era. The 1967 outer space treaty established that space cannot be subject to national appropriation, but debate remains as to whether this prohibition extends to private entities extracting resources.
The treaty's article I declares exploration shall benefit "all mankind", yet provides no mandatory mechanism for sharing benefits, leaving it entirely to nations that have conducted activities to decide how, or whether, to share benefits at all.
The 1979 moon agreement attempted to designate lunar resources as the "common heritage of mankind" and establish an international regime for exploitation. This agreement received only 15 ratifications, and none from spacefaring powers. The "common heritage" concept met fierce opposition from industrialized countries, who viewed it as restricting their technological advantage.
National legislation, as well as other types of agreement, has filled the vacuum. The US Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act of 2015 granted American citizens rights to extract space resources. Luxembourg, UAE and Japan followed with similar laws. The Artemis accords of 2020, which are non-binding arrangements between the US and other countries, have provided for voluntary coordination among like-minded states. They have established principles for lunar activity including transparency and safety zones.
However, they function more as a coalition agreement than a universal law. Clear international property-rights frameworks would determine which nations capture value. The current state of ambiguity primarily benefits those with clearer frameworks and first-mover advantages, and indicates a missed opportunity for equitable benefit-sharing from space resources.
The pursuit of profit raises paramount scientific and environmental concerns. Astronomers caution that large-scale mining activities could disrupt ongoing research and preservation of the lunar environment, leading to calls for development of comprehensive lunar laws and regulations to manage these activities responsibly.
ESA's push for a zero debris charter, which it hopes will gain global recognition by 2030, reflects a growing awareness that mining and resource use in space must go hand in hand with responsible behavior.
As lunar mining and exploration accelerate, the security dimension also becomes increasingly complex and fraught, with the potential for conflict between nations. Valuable lunar resources such as water ice and rare metals are concentrated in limited, highly contested regions.
In the absence of internationally binding governance agreements, the risk of overlapping claims, operational interference and even direct confrontation is real. Exclusion zones and safety zones around mining sites could serve as flashpoints for disputes over access, resource rights and commercial interests.
The possibility of competing governance frameworks, such as the Artemis Accords and the Outer Space Treaty, to manage claims could further exacerbate the risk of conflict. The urgent need for international cooperation and transparent, equitable frameworks is clear.
The international community stands at a crossroads. The technology enabling lunar resource extraction is arriving faster than most anticipated. Policymakers and legislators have a waning opportunity to design and implement governance that keeps pace with innovation and growing appetites for lunar resources.
Binding international agreements – particularly between the great space powers – which emphasize principles of stewardship, clarify access rights and support common benefits from lunar development would ensure the moon becomes a proving ground for the equitable and sustainable development of space.
Jessie Osborne is a research assistant at RAND Europe. Specialising in space law, policy, and governance, she also brings legal expertise to the Science and Emerging Technology (SET) research group and RAND Europe Space Hub. Osborne combines advanced legal training with strong analytical capabilities in space-related research and qualitative analysis.
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